Hydrogen Storage Innovation: From Pressure Vessels to Cryogenic Storage Technologies

As hydrogen production continues to grow and application scenarios keep expanding, the demand for material innovation in the hydrogen energy sector is becoming increasingly urgent. Composite materials are redefining pressure vessels, enhancing manufacturing efficiency while addressing key challenges such as recycling and total life-cycle costs.

The hydrogen economy is transitioning from a grand vision to a practical stage. During this process, we face the challenge of finding materials that can withstand extreme operating conditions, are cost-effective, and can be applied on a large scale. The UK National Composites Centre (NCC) is leveraging advanced material solutions, such as composite materials, to translate cutting-edge research and technologies into industrial impact. These materials have proven to be indispensable core elements in the field of hydrogen storage and transportation. Although existing pressure vessels have demonstrated strong commercialization potential, there is still significant room for innovation in terms of weight reduction, cost reduction, and optimization of post-end-of-life recycling (Figure 1).

Figure 1: The UK National Composites Centre (NCC) is committed to facilitating the entire product life cycle with its technical expertise.

In 2024, global hydrogen production in the hydrogen energy sector reached approximately 97 million tons [1], almost all of which was "grey hydrogen" (hydrogen produced from fossil fuels without carbon emission treatment). As the transition to "green hydrogen" (hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources with carbon neutrality) accelerates, new applications of hydrogen energy are emerging in heavy industries, transportation, and dispatchable power sectors. Composite materials, as key enabling materials, are creating new opportunities across the entire supply chain.

Existing Pressure Vessel Technologies

Composite pressure vessels have become the cornerstone of hydrogen storage, backed by solid technical reasons. Compared to metal pressure vessels, composite materials offer superior gravimetric efficiency, which gives them a significant advantage in mobile applications—maintaining a lightweight profile while withstanding extreme structural loads. Currently, composite pressure vessels are widely used in various fields, including tubular trailers, off-road vehicles, marine transportation, and cutting-edge applications such as hydrogen-powered aircraft developed by ZeroAvia.

The growing production volume [2] reflects the industry's increasing confidence in this technology, with manufacturers now capable of producing hundreds of thousands of composite pressure vessels annually. However, the market is still in its infancy, and suppliers are actively expanding their production capacities to meet the expected significant growth in market demand in the coming years.

Innovation Opportunities in Existing Technologies

Although composite pressure vessels have achieved commercial success, there is still significant room for improvement in several areas:

Weight Reduction

Weight reduction remains a core requirement in this field. The technical challenge lies in optimizing the material laminate structure design by clarifying the interactions between different components, thereby achieving a reasonable balance between weight, performance, and safety. Digital tools with real-time damage detection capabilities can not only reduce material usage and enable more streamlined structural designs but also lower safety factor redundancies by real-time tracking of container conditions.

Manufacturing Process Optimization

Under high-pressure conditions, even minor defects can significantly impact the performance of pressure vessels. Therefore, developing manufacturing processes with higher repeatability and better defect resistance is crucial for increasing production capacity and reducing costs.

Post-End-of-Life Solutions

This is a major challenge currently. The production process of carbon fiber is highly energy-intensive, and its post-end-of-life disposal is difficult. As a national innovation institution dedicated to solving industry-wide challenges, the UK National Composites Centre (NCC) has taken the lead in researching continuous fiber recycling technologies and exploring commercially viable and scalable recycling pathways (Figure 2).

Cost Reduction

Pressure vessels account for a significant proportion of the total cost of hydrogen storage systems, so reducing their cost is key to improving system economic viability. To achieve this, innovation must be carried out in every link of the product life cycle, including materials, manufacturing, use, and recycling.

Figure 2: Post-end-of-life (container) solutions

Infrastructure Construction

As the application of hydrogen energy accelerates, material solutions such as composite pipelines offer unique advantages over metal pipelines. Metal pipelines require on-site welding of short pipe sections, while composite pipelines are delivered in long, continuous rolls and can be simply unrolled and laid on-site—a feature that significantly shortens installation time and reduces construction complexity. Currently, companies such as Strohm, SoluForce, and Baker Hughes have launched composite pipeline systems, many of which are adapted from applications in the oil and gas industry.

At present, the application of composite pipelines is mainly limited to industrial sites, but with the growth of hydrogen energy demand, their use in public infrastructure is expected to expand further.

Emerging Opportunities

Liquid hydrogen is considered an important path for achieving decarbonization in the aviation industry. As one of the first institutions in the UK to design, test, and manufacture composite cryogenic hydrogen storage solutions (Figure 3), the UK National Composites Centre (NCC) is well aware of the critical impact of weight on aircraft performance. However, the technological maturity of composite materials suitable for cryogenic applications is still insufficient to fully leverage this advantage.

Figure 3: Material testing in cryogenic environments

So, what are the main challenges faced by composite materials in cryogenic hydrogen storage applications?

Permeation Issues

In insulated systems, composite materials have difficulty maintaining the required vacuum level. This phenomenon is similar to the loss of vacuum in a thermos—when molecules penetrate the composite material (especially when part of the container is at a high temperature and part is at a low temperature), the insulation performance rapidly declines.

Cryogenic Brittleness

At low temperatures, composite materials exhibit brittleness, which not only reduces their damage resistance but also affects their long-term durability.

Thermal Expansion Mismatch

In low-temperature environments, the difference in thermal expansion coefficients between the composite matrix and fibers can generate significant thermal stresses. The combination of thermal stresses and matrix brittleness can exacerbate material damage, thereby affecting both permeation performance and structural integrity.

Although giants such as Airbus have postponed the commercialization timeline of hydrogen-powered aircraft by at least a decade, relevant technology research and development have not stopped. Currently, numerous companies and institutions are conducting research and development work for aircraft of different sizes, ranging from drones to regional aircraft and single-aisle passenger planes.

Innovation Ecosystem

The flourishing development of solutions in the hydrogen energy sector relies on close collaboration among industry, academia, and research institutions, supported by a well-established regulatory framework. The UK National Composites Centre (NCC) is a globally leading innovation institution dedicated to translating cutting-edge research and technologies into industrial impact. The center focuses on advanced materials and product technologies required for efficient hydrogen storage and transportation, helping companies of all sizes leverage cutting-edge innovations to achieve breakthroughs throughout the entire engineering life cycle, from conceptual design and manufacturing to sustainability management and post-end-of-life treatment.

The hydrogen energy market is still in its infancy, providing a unique window of opportunity for innovation. Early布局 (layout) can increase the probability of successful technology implementation and global competitiveness, but this requires continuous investment in research, manufacturing, and supply chain construction.

Looking Ahead

Composite materials have unique advantages in supporting the development of the hydrogen economy. Although current composite pressure vessels have formed a solid commercial foundation, there is still enormous innovation potential in areas such as materials, manufacturing processes, and total life-cycle management. To realize this potential, it is necessary to not only continuously improve existing systems but also develop next-generation cryogenic storage solutions—in other words, breakthroughs are required in material science, manufacturing processes, and system integration to ensure the协同运作 (coordinated operation) of all links.

However, no single institution can accomplish this mission alone. Building an ecosystem that enables close collaboration among researchers, manufacturers, and end-users is crucial: through collaboration to overcome technical challenges and build a resilient supply chain...

The UK National Composites Centre (NCC) is at the forefront of innovation in UK hydrogen storage and transportation solutions as well as cryogenic storage technologies. As an innovation partner for the industry, the center's team is committed to facilitating the entire life cycle of hydrogen storage products, from design and manufacturing to testing, helping to build a sustainable, efficient, and resilient future hydrogen energy industry. Whether it is developing the next generation of pressure vessels, overcoming cryogenic technology challenges, or optimizing manufacturing processes, the NCC's next goal is clear: to reduce risks and provide empirical support for new product research and development and manufacturing by verifying the scalability of new technologies.

References:
[1] http://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2024-hydrogen-production ("Global Hydrogen Review 2024 - Hydrogen Production")
[2] http://www.verifedmarketreports.com/product/hydrogen-pressure-vessels-market ("Hydrogen Pressure Vessels Market Report")