【Special Topic Review】Durability of Basalt Fiber and Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers: Internal Stress, Mass Loss Modelling and the Influence of Extreme Cold Climate Exposure on Mec

Abstract

Under extreme cold conditions in Yakutsk (-54 to +36°C), researchers evaluated the durability of polymer composites reinforced with basalt fibers (BFRP) and glass fibers (GFRP). The evaluation involved 18-layer laminates prepared with epoxy CYD-128, which were exposed outdoors for three years. Mechanical tests showed a 22-32% decrease in tensile strength and modulus for GFRP, compared to a 6-12% decrease for BFRP; dynamic mechanical analysis revealed a 11-14°C decrease in the glass transition temperature for GFRP and a 4-6°C for BFRP. The researchers conducted a mass loss kinetics study for three different sizes of samples: 10×10, 20×20, and 40×40mm, over 405 days, showing seasonal absorption between 0.01-0.19%, and long-term degradation followed Fick's law, with a diffusion coefficient of the degradation products ranging from 1×10⁻⁴ to 0.29mm²/day. A diffusion-based model was proposed based on this study, where the total mass change was shown to be a superposition of reversible adsorption and irreversible degradation, which accurately recreated the experimental trends, highlighting the higher tolerance of BFRP. Surface morphology analysis showed matrix erosion and microcracking on the exposed surface, with an increase in average roughness from 1.61-5.61μm to 5.86-11.73μm; thermal mechanical analysis confirmed that BFRP maintained a more stable linear thermal expansion coefficient than GFRP in the range of -60 to 100°C, thereby reducing thermal-induced stresses in seasonal cycling. These findings indicate that BFRP exhibits superior stability compared to GFRP under cold climate exposure; a comparison of experimental results with mathematical modeling suggests that sudden internal stresses generated during thermal cycling in extreme cold conditions are the main cause of polymer matrix degradation.

Keywords:BFRP; GFRP; Laminated boards; Extreme cold climate; Outdoor exposure; Degradation; Tensile strength; Glass transition temperature (Tg); Coefficient of linear thermal expansion (CLTE)

1. Introduction

Basalt fiber reinforced polymers (BFRP) are prepared in the form of unidirectional bars or fabric layers, and have attracted significant attention due to their high strength, low density, and corrosion resistance. These properties allow them to compete with traditional glass fiber reinforced polymers (GFRP) and have demand in the aerospace, marine, automotive, and energy industries. An important advantage of basalt fibers is that they have a minimal environmental impact compared to carbon fibers, glass fibers, and other mineral fibers. After chemical surface treatment, the adhesion between the fibers and the polymer matrix is improved, which has a positive effect on the strength and durability of the composite. The research of Elmahdy and Verleysen, Duan et al., and Yan et al. discusses the application of BFRP in structures subjected to dynamic loads, as well as in the strengthening of concrete and masonry structures, and their studies show that BFRP can increase the bearing capacity by up to 60% and the service life by up to 50 years. Liu et al. and Monaldo et al. confirmed the prospects of BFRP in civil engineering, infrastructure projects, and transmission lines. Basalt fiber reinforced polymers (BFRP) have the advantages of lower cost and better creep resistance than traditional composites, and are therefore increasingly being studied for their performance, applications, and challenges. In addition to high strength, basalt fiber based materials also show better insulation and flexural properties.

To evaluatethe durability of BFRP in various aggressive environments, comparative experiments with GFRP were conducted. The studies by Wang Zhi et al. and Wang Ming et al. showed that BFRP had more stable interfacial bonding with epoxy matrices and was less sensitive to alkaline attack than GFRP. Wu et al., Hashim et al., and Lukachevskai et al. confirmed that BFRP had high resistance to water, salt, and ultraviolet (UV) corrosion, while GFRP suffered more severe degradation. Zhao et al. detailed the mechanism of photoaging, including the loss of polymer-filler interfacial bonding strength. BFRP also showed stronger resistance to fatigue loading, corrosion, and low-speed impact.

Stasev等人分析了玄武岩纤维增强聚合物（BFRP）在自然条件下的老化情况，确定了温度、热循环、湿度和紫外线辐射对其力学性能的影响。In cold climates, low temperatures can introduce significant internal stresses due to the mismatch in thermal expansion coefficients between the polymer matrix and the reinforcing fibers, which can promote the formation of microcracks and macro damage, especially in the presence of moisture. The internal stresses in the matrix can be estimated using the following equation:

where, σm is the tensile stress in the matrix, Em is the elastic modulus of the matrix, αm is the linear thermal expansion coefficient of the matrix at the temperature of interest T, and T0 is the curing temperature of the matrix.For the glass fiber reinforced polymers (GFRP) and basalt fiber reinforced polymers (BFRP) studied by卢卡切夫斯卡娅 et al., the value of σm reaches 35 ± 5 MPa at the winter temperature of Yakutsk of −40∘C. The mass change of the exposed specimens was used to assess the degree of degradation, taking into account the moisture absorption and damage of the polymer matrix; while dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and thermal mechanical analysis (TMA) provided information on the glass transition, chain segment mobility, and microstructure changes.

Although a large number of studies have investigatedthe performance of BFRP and GFRP in different environments, the existing literature lacks comprehensive data on the behavior of these composites under cold climate conditions—data that need to integrate simultaneously the mechanical degradation, diffusion-based adsorption-desorption mass change model, and changes in the condition of the epoxy matrix.

Therefore, the aim of this study is to compare BFRP and GFRP under extreme cold climate conditions, focusing on the following aspects: changes in mechanical properties, adhesive content, surface deterioration (surface morphology and roughness), mass loss in hangar and open environment (including models and experimental devices), and the state of the epoxy resin matrix (DMA, TMA). A comprehensive method is proposed to evaluate the influence of internal stress on the durability of BFRP and GFRP in cold climate.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

For the purposes of this study, glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) and graphite fiber reinforced plastic (BFRP) plate samples were prepared. As reinforcement filler, TR-560-30A grade glass fiber fabric (produced by Polotsk-Stekl行业股份有限公司, Polotsk, Belarus) and BT-11 (100) grade basalt fiber fabric (produced by Technozavod LLC, Vladimir, Russia) were used, respectively.

“Polotsk-Stake洛沃洛克诺”，Belarusian Polotsk and basalt fabric grade BT-11(100) as reinforcement filler. The main physical and mechanical properties of the fabric are summarized in Table 1.

The adhesive matrix is based on epoxy resinCYD-128 (Hefei Tianji Chemical Co., Ltd., Hefei, China; Scheme 1), cured in the presence of a catalyst 2,4,6-tris(dimethylaminomethyl)phenol UP-606/2 (Streltamyk Petrochemical Plant JSC, Russia; Scheme 3) with isomethyl tetrahydrophthalic anhydride (iso-MTHPA; Scheme 2). Epoxy resin CYD-128 was selected as the matrix material because it meets all technical specifications as a domestic alternative to ED-22, including viscosity, curing time, and mechanical properties after curing. The selection of CYD-128 also ensures the continuity with the previous resin studies of ED-20 and ED-22. The resin has the necessary processing characteristics to be used with basalt and glass fibers, and it shows excellent mechanical properties after curing. The detailed properties of glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) and basalt fiber reinforced plastic (BFRP) boards are presented in the previous research of our team.

Scheme1. Chemical structure of bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (CYD-128).

Scheme2. Chemical structure of isomethyl tetrahydrophthalic anhydride (isoMTHPA).

Scheme3.2,4,6-Tri-(dimethylamino-methyl) phenol (DMP-30) chemical structure.

Figure1. Photographs of prepared samples: (a) mold side of glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP), (b) bag side of glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP), (c) mold side of carbon fiber reinforced plastic (BFRP), (d) bag side of carbon fiber reinforced plastic (BFRP)

2.2. Material exposure tests

In Yakutsk, GFRP and BFRP boards were placed on outdoor brackets (54 cm above the ground, inclined at 45°) with their mold surface exposed to sunlight for three years. The material properties were evaluated in the initial state and after 1, 2, and 3 years of exposure, corresponding to the initial phase of long-term degradation studies. Future plans include conducting studies with 5 and 10-year exposure periods to assess the later stages of material aging.

2.3. Measurement of mass change

Take two other sets of samples (10×10, 20×20, 40×40 mm specifications, four repeated samples are set for each size) to dry, measure the size and weigh before exposure. One set is placed outdoors

（April 19, 2024 - May 30, 2025; 405 days), the other group was placed in an unheated indoor shed, simulating the ambient temperature without solar UV irradiation. The thickness and mass were recorded 193 times